Deirdre T. Guion, Debra L. Scammon, and Aberdeen Leila Borders
Executive Summary
The devastation to the city of New Orleans as a result of Hurricane Katrina presents an opportunity and an obligation to examine the human and social factors that influenced the nation's response to this disaster. This study uses the four-phase disaster management framework, commonly employed by all levels of government, as the basis for analysis of the entities involved and the specific tasks and roles that are critical during each phase of a disaster.
The authors examine experiences in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina as witnessed through the eyes of the media, with specific emphasis on factors--both of the natural disaster and of the social and environmental context--that contributed to the devastation from Katrina. For New Orleans, political corruption at the local and regional level and the political nature of the administration of federal assistance programs were major factors that influenced the scope of the disaster and the ability of New Orleans residents to weather the storm. The racial and socioeconomic disparities within the population of New Orleans complicated the city's response to the disaster. This analysis should alert emergency managers to the necessity of considering the differential perspectives, opportunities, and abilities of segments of the population as they are related to response to disaster risks.
The phases of preparedness and response from the disaster management framework are explored, and the authors draw on risk and consumer behavior research to identify factors that influence people's assessment of and responses to risks and, in particular, their responses to risk communications. Individual characteristics, including income, education, and ethnicity; experience with prior disasters; credibility of sources of risk messages; personal relevance of the risk; and people's perceived ability to respond to the risks, are particularly relevant. The amount and type of information included in disaster messages, as well as the media through which messages are disseminated, affect people's responses to risk communications. Historically, mass media have played an important role in information dissemination. The Internet offers a vital source of information but shifts much of the burden to people to search for needed information. During Katrina, the emergence of the media in a new role as first responders gave them access to firsthand images of the human side of the disaster that defined it for the world.
Lessons from experiences with Hurricane Katrina and from disaster and risk research in general suggest that a social marketing approach to disaster management could increase the likelihood of positive outcomes for individuals and communities when a disaster strikes. Social marketing is particularly well suited to support behavior changes and facilitate people's preparedness for disasters and their willingness and ability to take recommended self-protective behaviors when warranted. In addition, a social marketing perspective could improve the responsiveness of entities involved with emergency management to the needs of their communities and their residents.
The authors use a social marketing perspective to examine a current disaster preparedness program and evacuation orders to illustrate how such an approach could change the way that disaster managers deal with the challenges of ensuring public safety in the face of disasters. Because communication is a thread that runs throughout all phases of disaster management, the authors propose an integrated approach to effective risk communications--communicate actionable responses effectively (CARE)--to encourage and support people's engagement in self-protective behaviors. This approach emphasizes the criticality of timely, accurate, and coordinated communication from credible sources. Content of messages should be designed with an understanding of the perspectives of residents of the disaster area and should include recommendations for actions that these residents are willing and able to take. This approach recognizes that different messages and media may be needed for different target audiences and that all communications should be coordinated to ensure a consistent message. Recommendations regarding appropriate responses to pending risks should be developed with an understanding of people's perceptions of the costs and benefits of such action, and importantly, any recommended actions must be supported and facilitated by disaster management.
The analysis in this article has implications for policy makers and disaster managers at the federal, state, and local levels. In particular, it questions the effectiveness of centralized management, which may be plagued by political processes. Despite the inefficiencies of centralized management, the analysis emphasizes the importance of centralized communication. It reveals the importance of recognizable "expert celebrities" who appear in all communications and who enhance consistency and believability of messages. The analysis emphasizes the role of firms and nongovernmental organizations in disaster preparedness and response. Firms that market materials and supplies used in securing and protecting property, such as home improvement retailers, and service providers with whom residents have ongoing relationships, such as banks and health care providers, can participate as full partners in disaster preparedness and response efforts. Their participation has the dual benefits of expanding the resources available to deal with disasters and of enhancing trust and, thus, compliance with recommended actions on the part of residents of a disaster area.
Biography
Deirdre T. Guion is Assistant Professor of Marketing in the Haub School of Business at St. Joseph's University. Deirdre earned her PhD in Marketing from the University of Utah, Salt Lake City. She joined the faculty of the Haub School of Business in 2005, and her research interests are in the areas of consumer behavior, public policy and marketing, and advertising. Guion owned and operated her own advertising agency (1994–2000) and worked in brand management at General Mills (1992–1994). Her recent research has focused on food and eating practices, factors that contribute to the obesity crisis, and the unintended consequences of policy initiatives. Her work has been presented at the annual Marketing and Public Policy Conference and Association for Consumer Research and European Association for Consumer Research Conferences. She is active in the Association for Consumer Research, the American Marketing Association's special interest group on Marketing and Society, and the PhD Project.
Debra L. Scammon is Emma Eccles Jones Professor of Marketing in the David Eccles School of Business at the University of Utah. Debra earned her PhD in Marketing from the University of California, Los Angeles. She joined the faculty of the David Eccles School of Business in 1975. Dr. Scammon's areas of research include consumer behavior, public policy and marketing, and health care marketing. Scammon held a position as in-house marketing and advertising research consultant to the Federal Trade Commission, Bureau of Consumer Protection, in 1978–1979 and has conducted research related to the Federal Trade Commission's Food Rule, Children's Advertising Rule, and Guides on Environmental Advertising. Her recent research has focused on nutrition and health claims in both advertising and labeling of nutritional supplements, factors that contribute to the obesity crisis, and consumer vulnerability. Dr. Scammon has published in Journal of Marketing, Journal of Advertising, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, and Journal of Consumer Affairs, among other journals that examine consumer affairs and consumer protection. She is past editor of Journal of Public Policy & Marketing and is active in the American Marketing Association's special interest group on Marketing and Society and the Association for Consumer Research.
Aberdeen Leila Borders is Assistant Professor of Marketing in the Kirschman College of Business at the University of New Orleans. Leila earned her PhD in Marketing from Georgia State University. She joined the faculty of the University of New Orleans in 2002. Dr. Borders's areas of research include selling and sales management, business-to-business and industrial marketing, and global account management. Dr. Borders has published in Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, Industrial Marketing Management, Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, Thexis, Advances in Competitive Research, and Journal of Global Competitiveness. She is the Chairperson of the American Marketing Association's special interest group on relationship marketing.
Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol. 26, No. 2, Fall 2007
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